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FindinghappinessDoeshappinessfavorthoseofaparticularage,sex,orincomelevel?Doeshappinesscomewithsatisfyingcloserelationships?Whatattitudes,activities,andprioritiesengenderasenseofwell-being?Althoughthescientificpursuitofhappinesshasrecentlymushroomed,speculationsabouthappinessareage-old.Ancientphilosophersbelievedthathappinessaccompaniedalifeofintelligentreflection."Thereisnofoolwhoishappy,andnowisemanthatisnot,"saidtheRomanphilosopherCicero.Inlatercentury’slife,samesageshavesuggestedthathappinesscomesfromlivingavirtuouslife,andothers,fromindulgingpleasures;somethatitcomesfromknowingthetruth,andothers,frompreservingillusions;somethatitcomesfromrestraint,andothers,fromgettingridofrageandmisery.Thelistgoeson,buttheimplicationisclear:Todiscoverthetruthabouthappiness,wemustaskhowthesecompetingideasrelatetoreality.Inshort,wemuststudyhappinessscientifically.Socialscientistshaveexplodedsomemythsaboutwhosehappyandwho'snotbyidentifyingpredictorsofhappinessandlifesatisfaction.Manypeoplebelievethereareunhappytimesoflife--typicallythestress-filledteenyears,the"mid-lifecrisis"years,orthed3eclingyearsofoldage.Butinterviewswithpeopleofallagesrevealthatnotimeoflifeisnotablyhappierorunhappier.Emotionsdochangewithage:satisfactionwithsocialrelationsandhealthbecomesmoreimportantinlaterlife.Andteens,unlikeadults,typicallyreboundfromeithergloomorjoywithinanhour'stime.Yetknowingsomeone'sagegivesnocluetotheperson'slastingsenseofwell-being.Moreover,ratesofdepression,suicide,anddivorceshownoincreaseduringthemythical"mid-lifecrisis"years.Doeshappinesshaveafavoritesex?Aremenhappierbecauseoftheirgreaterincomesandsocialpower?Arewomenhappierbecauseoftheirsupposedlygreatercapacityforintimacyandsocialconnection?Likeage,gendergivesnocluetosubjectivewell-being.Therearegendergapsinmisery:Whentroubled,menmoreoftenbecomealcoholic,whilewomenmoreoftenthinkdeeplyandgetdepressedoranxious.Yetmenandwomenareequallylikelytodeclarethemselves"veryhappy"and"satisfied"withlife.Thisconclusionisgroundedinscoresofstudiesaroundtheworld.
Livingstandardshavesoaredduringthetwentiethcenturyandareexpectedtocontinuerisinginthedecadesahead.Doesthatmeanthatwehumanscanlookforwardtoincreasinghappiness?Notnecessarily.Steadyi9mprovementsintheeconomyarenotaccompaniedbyasteadyincreaseinpeople'sassessmentsoftheirownhappiness.Itseemsthatpeoplebecomelesssatisfiedovertimewithagivenlevelofincome.Instudyafterstudy,fourtraitsaretypicalofhappypeople.First,happypeople,especiallyinindividualisticWesterncultures,likethemselves.Onself-esteemtests,theyagreewithstatementssuchas"I'malotoffuntobewith"and"Ihavegoodideas"Aswemightexpectofpeoplewhoareusuallyhappy,theyreportthattheyhavepositiveself-esteem.Indeed,theyusuallyhavegoodopinionsofthemselves:Theybelievethemselvestobemoreethical,moreintelligent,lessprejudiced,betterabletogetalongwithothers,andheatherthantheaverageperson.Second,happypeopletypicallyfeelpersonalcontrol.Feelingempoweredratherthanhelpless,theyalsodobetterinschool,achievemoreatwork,andcopebetterwithstress.Deprivedofcontroloverone’slife--aphenomenonstudiedinprisoners,nursing-homepatients,andpeoplelivingundertotalitarianregimes---peoplesufferlowermoraleandworsehealth.Severepovertyisdepressingifitdestroyspeople'ssenseofcontrolovertheirlife.Third,happypeopleareusuallyoptimistic.Onecouldreasonthatpessimists,whoselowexpectationsaresooftenexceeded,wouldconstantlybesurprisedbyjoy."Blessedishewhoexpectsnothing,forheshallneverbedisappointed",wrotepoetAlexanderPopein1727letter.Nevertheless,positive-thinkingoptimists---thosewhoagree,forexample,that"WhenIundertakesomethingnew,Iexpecttosucceed"--tendtobeextroverted.Althoughwemighthaveexpectedthatintrovertsmightlivemorehappilyintheserenityoftheirless-stressedcontemplativelivemorehappier--whetherlivingandworkingaloneorwithothersandwhetherlivinginruralormetropolitanareas.Witheachofthesetrait-happinesscorrelations,thecasualarrowsareuncertain.Forexample,doeshappinessmakepeoplemoreoutgoing?Orareoutgoingpeoplemoreenthusiasticandlessanxiousaboutreachingouttoothers?Suchtendenciesmayexplaintheirmarryingsooner,gettingbetterjobs,andmakingmorefriends.Ifthesetraitsindeedproducehappiness,peoplemightbecomehappierbyactingasiftheyhaddesiredtraits.Inexperiments,peoplewhoactasiftheyhadhighself-esteembeginfeelingbetteraboutthemselves,andpeoplewhoareurgedtosmilefeelhappier.

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